Part 1: Answer the questions

第 1 部分：回答问题

1. Researchers have used both longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to investigate the order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in English by young children. Describe these approaches in your own words. What are the challenges and the potential benefits of each?

1. 研究人员使用了纵向和横向两种方法来调查幼儿习得英语语法词素的顺序。请用你自己的话描述这些方法。每种方法各有什么挑战和潜在好处？

The provided texts do not explicitly define these two research methods, but they do describe studies that use them. Based on these descriptions and general research methodology: 所提供的文本没有明确定义这两种研究方法，但它们确实描述了使用这些方法的研究。根据这些描述和一般的研究方法：

• Longitudinal Approach: This method involves following the same group of learners over a period of time to observe their development.
• 纵向研究 (Longitudinal Approach): 这种方法涉及在一段时间内跟踪同一组学习者，以观察他们的发展。
  • Example: A study at the European Science Foundation "followed" adult language learners as they learned another European language, tracking their progress over time.
  • 示例： 欧洲科学基金会的一项研究“跟踪”了成年语言学习者学习另一种欧洲语言的过程。
  • Benefits: This approach provides a detailed and accurate picture of individual development, showing the specific path a learner takes and how changes happen.
  • 优点： 这种方法能提供关于个体发展的详细而准确的图景，显示学习者所走的具体路径以及变化是如何发生的。
  • Challenges: These studies are time-consuming, expensive, and difficult to manage. A major challenge is participant attrition, which is when learners drop out of the study, making the data incomplete.
  • 挑战： 这些研究耗时、昂贵且难以管理。一个主要的挑战是受试者流失 (participant attrition)，即学习者退出研究，导致数据不完整。
• Cross-sectional Approach: This method involves studying different groups of learners at different developmental stages at the same point in time. For example, researchers might study a group of 3-year-olds, a group of 4-year-olds, and a group of 5-year-olds to see how their language skills differ.
• 横向研究 (Cross-sectional Approach): 这种方法涉及在同一时间点研究处于不同发展阶段的不同学习者群体。例如，研究人员可能同时研究一组3岁、一组4岁和一组5岁的孩子，看看他们的语言技能有何不同。
  • Example: Studies on grammatical morphemes examined development by learners "at different ages, and from different first language backgrounds" to compare them and establish an "accuracy order".
  • 示例： 关于语法词素的研究通过考察“不同年龄、不同第一语言背景”的学习者来进行发展研究，以便对他们进行比较，并建立一个“正确率顺序”。
  • Benefits: This approach is much faster and more efficient, providing a quick "snapshot" of the different stages of development.
  • 优点： 这种方法更快捷、更高效，能提供一个关于不同发展阶段的快速“快照”。
  • Challenges: This method doesn't show the development path of an individual learner. It can also be difficult to know if differences between groups are truly due to development or just to other "cohort" differences between the individuals in the groups.
  • 挑战： 这种方法无法显示个体学习者的发展路径。而且，研究者很难确定群体之间的差异是真正由发展水平不同引起的，还是仅仅由群体中个体之间的“队列”差异造成的。

2. What is the ‘logical problem of language acquisition’? How does ‘UG’ address this problem?

2. 什么是“语言习得的逻辑问题”？“普遍语法”(UG) 是如何解决这个问题的？

• The 'Logical Problem of Language Acquisition': This is the puzzle that learners "eventually know more about the language than they could reasonably have learned if they had to depend entirely on the input they are exposed to". In other words, the language learners hear (the input) is often messy, incomplete, and doesn't contain enough information for them to learn all the complex rules of the language. Yet, they still manage to acquire this complex system.
• “语言习得的逻辑问题” (The 'Logical Problem of Language Acquisition'): 这是一个难题，即学习者“最终对语言的了解超出了他们如果完全依赖所接触到的输入所能合理学到的东西”。换句话说，学习者听到的语言（即输入）往往是杂乱无章、不完整的，并且没有包含足够的信息让他们学会语言的所有复杂规则。然而，他们最终还是设法习得了这个复杂的系统。
• How Universal Grammar (UG) Addresses It: The innatist perspective proposes that this logical problem is solved because learners are not 100% dependent on the input. Instead, they are born with "innate knowledge of the principles of Universal Grammar" (UG).
• “普遍语法”(UG) 如何解决这个问题： 先天论观点 (innatist perspective) 提出，这个逻辑问题之所以能被解决，是因为学习者并非100%依赖输入。相反，他们天生就具备“普遍语法（UG）原则的先天知识”。
  • UG is seen as a kind of built-in "template" or set of abstract principles that are common to all human languages.
  • UG被视为一种内置的“模板”，或一套适用于所有人类语言的抽象原则。
  • This innate knowledge allows learners (both first and second) to "fill in the gaps" left by the input. When learners are exposed to language, their UG interacts with the input, helping them discover the specific structures of that particular language.
  • 这种先天知识允许学习者（无论是第一语言还是第二语言）“填补”输入所留下的空白。当学习者接触到语言时，他们的UG会与输入相互作用，帮助他们发现该特定语言的具体结构。

3. Explain the difference between simultaneous and sequential bilingualism, then between additive and subtractive bilingualism. Are subtractive bilinguals really bilingual?

3. 解释同步双语 (simultaneous bilingualism) 和继起双语 (sequential bilingualism) 的区别，以及增添型双语 (additive bilingualism) 和削减型双语 (subtractive bilingualism) 的区别。削减型双语者真的是双语者吗？

The provided text does not define all of these terms, but "subtractive bilingualism" is described: 所提供的文本没有明确定义所有这些术语，但描述了“削减型双语”：